Vowels Case Essay Example for Free

Vowels Case EssaySpeech passs can be classified and described in articulatory, acoustic and auditory basis. On the basis of these terms the two broad categories in which the speech sounds in any language can be classified are vowel sounds and consonants. Consonants are scoop out described in articulatory terms because there is some type of closure or narrowing of the air passage to the consequence that there is loud friction during the production of that sound. But in case of the production of vowels as there is no closure and no narrowing of the air passage to the extent that it may produce perceptible friction both articulatory and auditory terms are used to describe and classify them. In Ph iodinetic terms vowels are speech sounds in the production of which there is no obstruction or closure and no narrowing of a degree that would cause audible friction in the pharynx and the mouth.Vowels are essentially a tone issuing from the glotis with the vocal chords vibrating. Classification and description of vowels becomes difficult due to the fact that the annotation of one vowel from another arises because of the modification in the shape and size of the resonating chambers, that is the pharyngeal cavity, nasal cavity and the mouth. Soft Palate, the lips and the spit are answerable for this modification. Thus, just as any description of consonant sounds should reveal the vex of vocal cords, place of articulation and manner of articulation, similarly any description of vowel sounds describe1. the position of the soft palate raised (oral) or get down (nasalized).2. The shape of the lips 1i. Unrounded spread, neutral, openii. Rounded open and close3. The shape of the tonguei. which part of the tongue is raised front, central and back. ii. How high is the part of the tongue is raised close, half close, half open and open. The position of the soft palate is judged by auditory perception. The shape of the lips can be observed by the eye and ther efore described in articulatory terms. But the shape and position of the tongue changes so minutely that it is very difficult to feel these changes. So most of the positions of the tongue are judged by auditory perception only.Cardinal VowelsThus it is soak up that a finer and more independent system of description is needed on the auditory and articulatory levels. The most satisfactory scheme was devised by Daniel Jones and is cognise as the Cardinal Vowel system. The basis of the system is physiological. The vowel sounds were produced with the tongue in certain easily felt position. The front of the tongue was raised as close as possible to the palate without causing friction and the sound produced was that of the important vowel i . Starting from the i , the front of the tongue was lowered gradually, the lips remained in the spread or the open position and the soft palate was in raised position. The lowering of the tongue was halted at three points at which the vowel qualit ies seemed to be equi-distant from the auditory point of view.These three tongue positions were x-rayed and it was found that these three points were almost equi-distant from a spatial point of view. The symbols assigned to these three positions were e, , a . The said(prenominal) procedure was applied to the vowels which are produced by raising the back of the tongue. The sound produced when the whole of the tongue was as low as possible with a sharp raising at the back of the tongue was termed as the cardinal vowel . The lips were changed progressively from a wide open shape to closely rounded one and the soft palate remained in the raised position. Once again three auditorily and spatially equi-distant points were found. These points were were assigned the symbols , o, u . Thus a scale of eight primary quill cardinal vowels was set up. They were denoted by the following numbers and symbols 1, i 2, e 3, 4, a 5, 6, 7, o 8, u. The usefulness of Cardinal VowelsSu ch a scale is useful becausea. these cardinal vowel sounds are unrelated to bad-tempered values in languages, though they may occur in various languages, and b. the set of cardinal vowels is recorded so that reference may always be made to a standard. A vowel sound may be described as being similar to a particular cardinal vowel. These cardinal vowels can be represented diagrammatically. A vowel diagram is obtained by plotting the highest point of tongue raising for each of the primary cardinal vowels and joining the points together. The internal triangle, corresponding to the region of central vowel sounds, is made by dividing the top line into three approximately equal sections and drawing lines analog to the two sides so that they meet near the base of the figure.C i C uC e C o C C C a C Monophthongs and Diphthongs in that respect are twenty vowel sounds in RP. These vowel sounds can be divided into two types monophthongs and diphthongs on the basis of whether the q uality the vowel sound changes during their production or not. Vowel sounds, during the production of which there is no considerable and voluntary change in the quality of the sound are called monophthongs or minute vowels. For example, the vowel sound / I / in pin. They are represented by thick dots in the vowel diagram. There are 12 monophthongs in RP. Similarly, vowel sound, during the production of which there is considerable and voluntary change in the quality of the sound is called diphthongs or gliding vowel. For example the / aI / sound in pine. (Explain). They are represented by arrows in the vowel diagram indicating the starting point and the direction in which the quality change, corresponding to the movement of the tongue, is made. There are 8 diphthongs in RP.It should be noted that a diphthong is not the same thing as a sequence of two monophthongs. The diphthong occupies one syllable enchantment a sequence of two monophthongs is spread over two syllables. Example so il, sawing. During the description of a diphthong we have to describe the lip position and the tongue position at the starting point and the lip position and the tongue position after it has glided in a particular direction.

Commercialization of Beauty Essay Example for Free

Commercialization of Beauty EssayTo help with any queries you whitethorn cook some the examination, I live written some guidelines be moo. You depart have had experience preparing exam questions in your review sessions. The following document provides some promote hints and tips, with some sample questions at the end. I have as well attached a document with questions from January and Resit last year, with an outline of what the resolution should contain.What do I have to do?In the examination, you lead be asked to select three questions to answer from a choice of six. Very broadly, these beas might be taken from the nine major(ip) sections listed in the course outline as below.3) merchandising to Consumers Consumer Behaviour* Why is client outline an distinguished comp integritynt of st posegic merchandising management? do reference to a confederation of your choice suggest TWO models that usher out be employ in undertaking much(prenominal) an compend.* With re ference to models and increases of your choice, describe some(prenominal) the Consumer Buying Process and four common types of behaviour that consumers exhibit.* Explain, use examples, how marketers smack to influence consumers at the different comprises of the consumer decision physical process.5) Product Strategy, Brand precaution* Describe and dispute each of the tell apart stages involved in new result development and exempt why innovation is a blusher trade strategy for brasss today.* What is the Boston shargon/growth matrix? 30 In turn, give an exampleproduct for each of the four boxes and describe the merchandising implications. 70* What is a movement map and how argon they useful to marketers? 50 For an industry of your choice draw an example of a positioning map with at least 6 product/ fire shits locate on it according to appropriate criteria with comments on the strengths and weaknesses of each location. 50* Assess the advantages and disadvantages of bra nd extensions. Use appropriate examples to illustrate your answer.* Examine the contributions of effective brand positioning, illustrating your answer with examples of well-positioned brands and poorly positioned ones.6) Pricing Strategy* Discuss the following strategy using set theories and concepts from the course The save earth that companies set low harms is that their products are undifferentiated.* List and apologise the keys mistakes a strategic marketer could make when setting the price of a good or returns.* You have been asked by a company specialising in consumer electronics about the price of a new product about to be launched. Describe the factors that the company should consider in setting the price of their new product.* Discuss how set should play a strategic rather than a tactical role for an organisation. Use relevant industry examples to illustrate your answer.7) Distribution Strategy* Marketing groove issues are amongst the most important decisions that management faces. To what extent do you agree with this statement?* Why might a supply hold fashion disintermediated?8) Promotions Strategy, Marketing Communications* Advertising is the most obvious form of promotion. employ examples, describe at least three other forms of promotional activity.* Identify and discuss the key strategic actions marketers essential take to watch Integrated Marketing Communications are happy.* Different advertising disturbs screw have different objectives. With reference to new-fashioned examples, list and discuss four different types of objective.* there are five main promotional tools. Define each and use examples to illustrate their potential usefulness.9) operate Marketing* Using strategic interchange theories and concepts, state whether you agree or disagree with the following statement Creating marketing strategies for run is no different to the marketing of goods.* Discuss the extended marketing admixture used for services. Why are these useful, given the characteristics of services?Below are listed the exam questions and outline answers for a previous January examination and Resit. The outline answers are produced so that the external examiner and markers have a good idea about what the answer should contain. However, to achieve top mark (70+) you would indigence to include these points in a coherent argument, aided by relevant examples and context.Resit 20121) What are the four distinguishing characteristics of services marketing? What ch in allenges do these present to the conceptualisation of marketing strategy and implementation?Answers should define what is meant by a service a provider/client interaction that creates and captures appreciate. Definitions such(prenominal) as Deeds, processes, slayings (Zeithaml Bitner, 1996) An activity or series of activities provided as solution to customer problems(Gronroos, 2000) whitethorn be used. The four distinguishing characteristics of services marketing result be delineate asIntangible (as argue to tangible goods) The implication of this is that services goat non be inventoried, or easily patented. They whitethorn therefore be easier to copy, and gaining real agonistical advantage may be much sticky. Services burn downnot be readily displayed or communicated- this raises issues in hurt of the promotional strategy and message designs that can be used. Airlines may underscore the relaxation of creation on board as the substantial process of travel is more difficult to represent, and might be more problematic when communicating the companys positioning strategy.Intangibility to a fault makes pricing more difficult. With goods, a speciality focus and premium pricing strategy may be cl ahead of time place by the consumer through the tangible attributes of the products and the difference in quality. The quality of a set of accounts, or a medical procedure may be slight tangible, and therefore high prices may need to be m eeted by other aspects of the strategy and marketing management process. The extended marketing mix, such as physical evidence may be helped to signal quality to consumers.Heterogeneous (as opposed to standardized) Service delivery and customer joy front on employee and customer actions. in that locationfore plans for marketing strategy and implementation cannot be guaranteed in the same way as for products. Service quality depends on many uncontrollable factors. There is no sure knowledge that the service delivered matches what was planned and promoted. The extended marketing mix, particularly the formulationof the process may be to alleviate problems of standardization. Some companies such as McDonalds have tried to implement a standardized service experience. This may only be appropriate for some sectors however. For luxury services or professional services, the heterogeneous and client-specific exchange may be part of the value of the service. Companies will need to carefull y monitor and control implementation.Simultaneous production and phthisis customers participate in and affect the transaction, and each other. Employees also affect the service outcome. Decentralisation may be essential. Mass production is difficult. Because services depend critically on the co-production relationship, it is very important that the service contract spell out mutual responsibilities and expectations. A significant percentage of service engagements (estimates range from 10-50 percent) do not meet the clients or providers expectations, resulting in poor performance and low satisfaction, and, therefore, in less value created and captured than anticipated. This gap is an opportunity for services innovation that will remediate returns, performance and satisfaction. The training and management of state, another aspect of the extended marketing mix, may help the control and implementation of strategy in this respect.Perishability (as opposed to non-perishable)- Its diffi cult to synchronise supply and beseech. For many services, demand may be affected by geographical location, seasons, timing etc. Marketing management has to try to balance supply and demand, for example through pricing strategies- bundling return journeys or making seasonal promotions to stimulate demand off-peak. In this sense, segmentation, coffin nailing and positioning is of key importance- identifying the value sought by different consumers and managing the marketing mix accordingly. Services cannot be resold or returned, therefore pricing and promotional tactics may be to sell services at cost alone, for example last minute hotel bookings and flights. Considering overheads are fixed, it is better to have be covered than an empty seat or hotel room. However, these tactics may not integrate effectively with the companys generic strategy.2) What marketing strategies and marketing mix decisions are associated with the different phases of the product spiritedness cycle? Discuss how the product life cycle can help companies to plan its product portfolio.The concept of the plc should be introduced and how marketers use it to make strategic planning and marketing mix decisions. The four phases should be identified asIntroduction Characterised by low sales and high cost per customer. There are slipway which marketers categorise consumers willingness to adopt new products, such as Rogers (1983) seminal work on the adoption of innovation. At this phase the segments which should be indentified and targeted are innovators, who are risk takers and open to new ideas. A similar adoption model is proposed by Moore (1999). His chasm strategy would argue that the early phases should involve techies, to iron out bugs.There are few competitors at this stage, and therefore some advantages may be found in being first to market. Consumers may be willing to sacrifice a premium price for products at the first appearance stage, and therefore a market skimming strategy may be adopted. Alternatively depending on product type, a cost-plus or penetration strategy may be appropriate. Promotional strategy will have the objective of raising awareness. Heavy sales promotion may also be used. Distribution is plausibly to be selective at this phase.Growth This phase is charaterised by rapidly rising sales, overturn average cost per customer, and rising doughs. At this phase early adopters will consider corrupt. They should be targeted by companies as they tend to be respected touch leaders in the product field will promote wider adoption through word of mouth. Moores (1999) model would propose that visionaries should be targeted to help dress competitive advantage and to establish the base of the appeal for the pragmatists.There will be a growing number of competitors at this phase so marketing management and strategy is likely to reflect this. Extensions, warranty, and service may become more important add-ons to secure competitive advantage. Pricing may be competitor-orientated or for penetration. Efforts should be make to build intensive distribution to try to remain market leader. Promotional effortswill continue to build awareness but in the mass market, rather than targeted at a niche.Maturity This phase is characterised by peak sales, low cost per customer and high profits. Purchasers will be the early/late majority (or the pragmatists and conservatives). Competition is likely to have stabilized as weaker products are forced out of the market. Strategies at this stage might involve diversifying brands (brand leverage, brand extension) and product line changes (widening, filling, stretching). Prices will most likely be lowered at this stage, possibly to match or beat competitors. Sales promotion may become more prevalent. Generally promotional strategy will be to stress brand differences and encourage brand loyalty. Advertising will try to prompt and reinforce the brand.Decline This phase is characterised by declining sale s, and declining profits. Laggards or the skeptics will buy the product now cost and risk is low and most other people have purchased the product. Competition will quail as companys divest products in a declining market with declining sales. Strategies at this phase may be to phase out weak items. Prices may be cut. All aspects of the marketing mix might be cut back to reduce costs with efforts make at the level to retain loyalists.The PLC can be used in planning a companys product portfolio. The ideal is to have products at different phases of the life cycle so that products at the maturity phase can provide profits for investment in the mix for products at the introduction and growth phases. Portfolio planning models like the BCG matrix allow star signs to address this, and to make sure they are channelling their efforts into products which have potential for growth (stars and question marks) or profit generation (cash cows). Portfolio planning will also be about phasing out pro ducts which do not have a future (dogs). Best answers will emphasise the limitations of the plc model (linearity, not all products ever do into decline).3) Discuss the main areas an advertising company will consider when given a creative brief. Using examples, explain why a celebrity may be chosen as amessage source. What factors determine the success of a celebrity second base?Answers should outline the following areas for a creative briefPositioning statement- what is the overall positioning of the brand. What are the key brand benefits and brand promise. It could be based on Features how the brand delivers its promise Values and personality what the brand stands for and signifies, which affects relationship and loyalty or Key reward may be based on one of these features, safety, classy personality etc.Proposition spells out what you wishing to say big ideas, strategically central. Potential sources of a proposition are user characteristics, price, brand image, product service h eritage, ways of using the product, comparison with rivals, surprising points etc.What are the specific objectives for the campaign- may be to inform, persuade, remind or reinforce. This should help chew over specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and targeted/timed objectives. Objectives may be to move buyers through readiness stages. Models such as AIDA and Dagmar may be mentioned.Target market- what segments are being targeted. This will impact greatly on the message strategy, creative considerations and media choice. Communication is a transactional process whereby meaning is exchanged through the intentional use of symbols. The firm moldiness encode- reduce the concepts to a set of symbols which the recipient will decode. There must be a shared view of what the symbols mean, a shared field of experience. This will be determined by the target market as well.Message strategy appeals, themes or ideas that tie into the brand positioning and establish points of parity or poin ts of difference. Rewards may be intrinsic e.g. quality or extrinsic e.g. traditional. Buyers expect one or more of the following rewards rational, sensory, social or egosatisfactionCreative structure- how should we express our message studyal (rational, logical, product demo, comparison, testimonials) transformational (non-product related benefit or image, stir up emotions, negative fear, guilt, shame, positive humour, love, pride and joy, often use borrowed participation devices- music, provocative images, cute animals etc.).Media choice- Where is the communication(s) going to appear? Media classes (media types such as PR, press, TV- does it reach the chosen audience?) Media vehicles (choice within the chosen class such as the times or the Sun). How frequently? What impact? What exposure? (Burst- concentrated, Continuity, Pulsing etc.). How much is to be spent? Budget and control measures.Message source- who should express the message? Credibility, celebrity endorsement, modell ing. fame endorsement used extensively. The product or service is given credibility through association with someone the audience trust or aspire to be like. Success depends on having a believable link between the meanings associated with the celebrity and the product Class, status, gender, age, personality and lifestyle are all part of what the celebrity transfers to the product. Likeability also important Celebrity credibility is comprised of attractiveness, trustworthiness and expertise. The various endorsements of a celebrity such as Tiger Woods may be used to discuss the effectiveness of this method.4) Using the purchase of a particular product as an example, describe the decision process model of consumer behaviour. What are the short comings of the model in disposition this purchase?The answer to this question will largely depend on whether the student patch ups to focus on a high involvement purchase such as a car, or a low involvement purchase such as a can of soft soak up. All answer will identifythe 5 stages of the decision process model of consumer behaviourProblem recognition consumers either recognise a problem or have a need triggered by internal or external stimuli. If the stimulus is internal for example hunger, it may rise to threshold level and become a drive. A need can be aroused by an external stimulus such as seeing a neighbours new car may trigger thoughts about buying one yourself. Information search Sources of information may be personal, commercial, public or experiential. Of the sum set of brands available, the consumer will only be aware of a subset called the awareness set. Some brands will meet the initial buying criteria and become part of the consideration set. As the consumer searches for further information, a few brands will form the choice set from which the final choice will be made. The awareness set will depend on whether companies have got themselves noticed.Consumers will then have positioned these according to a hierarchy of attributes- type/price/brand dominant. The car purchaser may decide on brands in the consideration set audi/BMW/Mercedes. The alcoholism purchaser may decide on type, cola with the options of Pepsi, Coca Cola and Supermarket own-brand. Evaluation- will depend on the need the consumer is satisfying the benefits they are seeking and the bundle of attributes that will satisfy this need. Attributes that deliver sought after benefits will vary for the soft drink it may be taste, price, packaging, for the car it may be safety, performance, price.Expectancy value model assumes consumers arrive at decision about brands through an attribute paygrade procedure, combining brand judgements, the positives and the negatives according to importance. Decision- the consumer makes the choice of their preferred brand and also decisions about quantity, timing and payment method. The car purchaser may have clear-cut on a BMW but there was a waiting time and no interest-free finance so a ctually decided on an Audi. The soft drink purchaser discovered Pepsi had a trial price and opted for that. Post purchase behaviour- consumers often feel dissonance that stems from noticing disquieting features or hearing admonishing things about the brand and will be alert to information that supports the purchase decision.No single process is used by all consumers, or by one consumer in all buyingsituations. There are several processes which are not necessarily made on the basis of such sensible and rational judgements. Non-compensatory models of decision making using heuristics may be used, depending on brand knowledge, differences among brands and the social context. In reality, the soft drink purchaser is very likely nevertheless to choose the Cola brand they have previous experience of, or the one all their friends drink.The elaboration likelihood model would suggest consumers may take a peripheral route for this type of purchase, as they are unlikely to have the motivation for a diligent rational evaluation of alternatives. The consumer could just go straight from problem to decision, or certainly skip stages. This model also ignores other consumer psychology such as variety seeking, which happens in low involvement but significant brand difference sectors. Therefore consumers try Cherry Coke, Coke with Lime etc. purely for variety. A car on the other hand would demand the central route.Perceived risk will vary with the amount of money at stake, the amount of attribute uncertainty and the consumers self-confidence. For the purchase of a car, there could be structural, physical, financial, social, psychological and time risk. This uncertainty may lead the customer to postpone the decision, as might unanticipated situational factors, both of which are not included in the decision model. High involvement decisions are more likely to proceed down this central route for purchases that are financially involving, technically complex or have social implicat ions (examples might be cars, mobiles).5) What are the three key stages of the strategic marketing management process? Explain what activities are undertaken at each stage of the process and why this is so critical to a firms long term competitive advantage.Strategic analysis- where are we now? This is concerned with understanding the strategic position of the organisation in terms of its external purlieu, internal resources and competencies and the expectations and influences of stakeholders. Strategy is the development of long-range plans for the effective management of environmental opportunities and threatswhile taking into account the organisations strengths and weaknesses. At this stage firms will collect and analyse relevant types of information about environmental forces and trends. This will be on two levels the macro- for which a PEST analysis may be performed and the micro- for which the Five Forces model for industry analysis may be used, in addition to analysing other relevant factors such as consumer behaviour and perceptive competitor analysis.The other environment is the internal environment in which a firm will identify its assets, resources and their application to determine where strengths and weaknesses may exist. Models such as a resource audit or value set up are used to collect this information. All relevant environmental analysis is then compiled into SWOT from which the organisation will determine where its future strategy should lie given the major factors and trends identified. This stage is crucial for competitive advantage as market information and intelligence is essential for ontogeny a successful marketing strategy based on and for creating and sustaining competitive advantage is todays rapidly changing environment.Strategic choice- where do we want to be? This involves understanding the underlying bases guiding future strategy, and generating strategic options for evaluation and selecting from among them. Strategy is decided upon in terms of objectives, financial decisions, segmentation, and positioning. These are the crucial and central decisions in developing a competitive marketing strategy. Based on the SWOT, strategic alternatives may be suggested and a decision needs to be made at incorporated and SBU levels. Deciding the the mission and directional strategy and allocating resources will be decided at a corporate level. Portfolio planning models such as the BCG matrix may be used. At the SBU level, a generic strategic orientation (cost leadership, differentiation, focus) will be chosen based on unique competitive advantages.At the functional level, strategists consider decision such as what products to offer. Ansoffs matrix may be used a tool to choose between the four thinkable options available to any organisation with regard to product/market strategy. Market segments to target and market position strategy are also decided at this stage, as well as competitive positioning and relationship st rategies. Segmentation, targeting and positioning are the cornerstone of marketing strategy and key in developinga unadornedive position in the consumers mind, developing brand loyalty and therefore building long term consumer franchise that will help the company defend itself from competitive threats.Strategic implementation- how are we going to get there? This is the translation of strategy into organisational action through organisational structure and design, resource planning, and the management of strategic change. This involves the strategic, rather than tactical planning of product innovation, branding, services, pricing and distribution, marketing communications and emarketing.Some responses may also identify a fourth stage- strategic monitor and control- did we get there? The importance of monitoring and control in strategic planning.6) Identify what is meant by Value Chain Analysis. Why would a firm decide to use this analytical tool?Framework developed by Porter (1985) as a way of examining the nature and extent, if any, among the internal activities of a firm. Porter argues all(prenominal) firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, promote, deliver and support its product. All these activities can be represented in five primary activities and four support activities using a value cosmic string concept. The primary activities of the value chain are inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales and services. Support activities are firm infrastructure, human resource management, technology development and procurement.Value chain analysis has been widely used by firms as a means of analysing the internal activities of an organisation. one of the key benefits is the recognition that organisations are much more than a random collection of machines, money and people because these resources have no value unless they are deployed in activities and organised into systems which ensure products and s ervices are produced and valued by the end customer. Firms which produce several products may evaluate several value chains. Examining eachchain and the linkages may allow firms to examine the potential synergies between the value chains of different products.Internal analysis provides a detailed understanding of those aspects of an organisation that are of strategic importance. It is often the way a firms assets and resources are applied that explain differences in performance among companies, rather than industry structure. It has been argued that the significance of the external environment has been over emphasised and a more appropriate focus for strategy is the organisations resource base.The key idea is that the value chain is a systematic way of examining all the activities a firm performs and how they interact to differentiate a firms value chain from its competitors value chains. This differentiation is recognised as a key source of competitive advantage. A firm is therefor e likely to use this tool when undertaking a strategic analysis. It will analyse the various activities and determine where its strengths and weaknesses lie. For example high levels of absenteeism and ineffective warehouse automation may be identified as weaknesses. Strong research and development and salesforce results might be strengths. The company will then decide whether to match their strengths or to convert or nullify their weaknesses. The value chain would be used when determining a strategic capability profile or using a SWOT analysis.Answers may explore the alternative forms of internal analysis, such as the resource-based approach, performance analysis approach and functional analysis approach, commenting on potential strengths and weaknesses of these analytical tools. Like any strategic environmental analysis, internal analysis must be rigorously performed and undertaken at regular intervals to monitor and evaluate strategies and changes.Answers may also critique the fa ct that value creation does not only occur in the organisation but also in the supply and distribution channels. For example the quality of a car is influenced not only by the activities within the firm but by the quality of spare parts, components and the performance of distributors.January 20111) Discuss the factors that influence a companys choice of promotional mix. (50%) Name and describe the chain of mountains and characteristics of various promotional tools. (50%)The main 5 factors that influence the choice of the marketing mix are1) Resource availability and cost of promotional tools2) Market surface and concentration3) Customer information needs4) Product characteristics5) Distribution push versus consumer pull strategiesOther relevant points are that decisions must not be made in isolation from the rest of the marketing mix- must be aligned marketers need to make the correct choice of the promotional blend to communicate to the target audience Marketers weigh strengths a nd weaknesses of tools against promotional objectivesAdvertising is defined as Paid for communication by an identified sponsor with the aim of influencing and informing one or more people. It is mainly used in the long term and is useful for raising awareness or influencing consumers attitudes about brands. Advantages are that it can communicate amplified and expressive messages through the use of sight, sound, music, experience etc. Disadvantages are that is is one directional, impersonal, expensive and can be seen as pervasive.Direct marketing is defined as The recording, analysis and tracking of customers direct responses in order to develop loyalty. It is used in the long term and short term. It is mostly used for retention but can also be used for acquisition of new customers. With improvements in databases, direct marketing can increasely be customised and up to date. It is also interactive i.e. generates responses from customers and builds relationships. Disadvantages can be cost, and that telemarketing and directmail etc. are often seen as a nuisance by consumers. domain Relations is defined as the Formulation, execution and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding and reciprocal goodwill between an organisation and its stakeholders. It is used in the short and long term and is particularly useful for building reputation. It has the advantages of low media costs, credibility, visibility, and dramatisation- can catch consumers off guard. Major disadvantage is that it is difficult to control.Sales promotion is An incentive for the customer, salesforce or distributor to make an immediate purchase. It is mainly used in the short term. When used strategically, it can be useful for encouraging trial, re-trial, extended trial, building databases and getting rid of old stock. From a trade perspective it can be useful for increasing distribution, increasing inventory, and improving shelving s stones throw/position. Disadvanta ges are that it does not build brand loyalty and is mainly tactical in its horizons.2) Explain the concept and resolve of analysing industry rivalry using Porters Five Forces model. Use illustrative examples to support your answer.The reason the Five Forces are important is that whilst industry structure has a surd influence in determining the competitive rules of the game as well as the strategies potentially available to the firm. Forces outside the firm are significant to begin with in a relative sense since outside forces usually affect all firms in the industry, the key is found in the differing ability of the firms to deal with them. The purpose of analysing industry competition is that it Determines sectoral structural attractiveness Collective strength determines the ultimate profit potential of the industry and the ability of firms to earn rates of ROI in overabundance of the cost of capital Links with strategy development- goal of business is to find a position in t he industry where it can defend itself Strategists should evaluate and rate these forces (high/medium/low threat or power) Accountsfor most of the micro-environment by acknowledging that competitive structure is not just determined by direct industry competitorsAnswers may outline the different Forces and raise some or all of the following pointsRivalry determinants Industry growth exit barriers brand identity switching costs concentration corporate stakes diversity of competitors informational complexity intermittent overcapacity fixed costs/value added product/service differencesBuyer power Bargaining leverage e.g. Buyer information, Buyer switching costs Buyer volume Price sensitivity Brand identity, Product/service differences, Impact on quality performanceSupplier power e.g. Switching costs substitute inputs impact of inputs on differentation threat of forward integration importance of volume to supplierSubstitute threats e.g. comparative price performance of substitutes sw itching costs buyer propensity to substituteEntry Barriers e.g. Economies of scale brand identity switching costs capital requirements ingress to distribution expected retaliation3) Discuss the role that segmentation, targeting and positioning each play in developing a successful marketing strategy including managing the marketing mix.STP is central to development a marketing strategy. The marketing concept assumes different preferences amongst consumers, and STP is how consumers are grouped into clusters with similar characteristics or needs, so that products and services can be targeted to satisfy them. Segmentation is dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers with different needs, characteristics or behaviours, who might require separate products or marketing mixes.The reason companies use STP is that* It is profitable business.* May discover unfulfilled consumer needs.* Strengthens management capabilities.* Allocates marketing resources.* Sets market objectives.There are 6 stages to STP, which areWhen considering which segments to target, marketers consider a mixture of managerial concerns and customer needs which include * Is servicing the segment consistent with corporate goals? * What is the strength of competition targeting the segment? * Is it desirable in terms of size, future growth and saturation? * Selecting segments whose needs match the companies ability to deliver. * Profitability and strategic fit- SWOT* Ultimately the decision is conceptual- who we are as a company, and where we want to beThe strategic role that STP plays is in allocating resources to the potentially most profitable segment of the market. Product lines are then designed to match demand in the market place or match resources. STP means companies can catch the first sign of change to give time to mend and take advantage of it, and consider best competitive position to adopt for each segment. With marketing management STP allows firms to determine the right style of com ms campaign choose the most cost effective advertising media apply demographic data effectively price for maximum effectiveness and develop the right channel strategy.Ultimately STP results in positioning which is possibly the most important aspect of marketing- it results in changing and forming perceptions about brands, creating brand identity and is about designing, communicating and delivering value (crafting the marketing mix to the needs of the target market is the foundation upon which customer relationships and brands are built). Aproducts position is the way the product is defined by consumers on important attributes, it is the place the product occupies in the consumers mind relative to competing products. Positioning is based on unique selling proposition (USP) (what is unique/what are you selling) a Brands competitive advantage- with whom are you competing and how are you better? And who will use the product?4) What personal, social and heathenish factors influence buye r behaviour? (50%) Choose an example of a high involvement purchase, such as a car, and describe how these factors influence the consumers choice.(50%)ethnical Influences have the broadest and deepest influence. Culture is the fundamental determinant of a persons wants and behaviors acquired through socialization processes with family and other key institutions. Your values are formed on achievement and success, individuality, freedom, humanitarianism etc. (or Hofstedes model). Subcultures- more specific identification and socialisation for members on the basis of nationalities, religion, geographical location, political perspectives. Social classes show distinct preferences in terms of product choice, brands, media choice and languages.Social influences. Relevant factors include Reference groups have a direct or indirect effect on attitudes or behaviours consist of primary and secondary aspirational and dissociative they introduce ideas and behaviours, influence attitudes and self concept they create pressures for conformity which may affect brand choice. horizon formers (e.g. designers), opinion leaders (offers information and usage advice), confident social and involved with category and opinion followers. Companies try to reach leaders to disseminate messages. Family- the most important consumer buying organisation and the primary reference group, different priorities and decision-making influences.Personal Influences Relevant factors include Age and stage in life cycle- family/ psychological/ transitions. Occupation and stinting circumstances- occupation may affect products and services required and what you canafford. Personality a set of distinguishing human psychological traits that lead to relatively consistent and let responses to environmental stimuli. Often consumers try to buy brands that reflect their own personality (Aakers brand personality typologies sincerity/ excitement/ competence/ sophistication/ ruggedness). Self-concept actual/ ideal/ others self-concept/ multiple selves. Lifestyle pattern of living as expressed in activities, interests and opinions and values influences such as time constrained, multi-tasking. Core values the belief systems that underlie attitudes and behaviours.5) Discuss THREE different approaches to pricing, outlining the advantages and disadvantages of each approach.The three approaches are Cost-based pricing strong internal orientation and based on costs Competitor-orientated pricing major emphasis on levels set by competitors Market-led pricing focuses on the value that customers place on a product in the market place and the nature of the marketing strategy used to support the product. Cost-based pricing involves setting prices based on the costs of producing, distributing and selling the product plus a good rate of return for the companys effort and risk. Methods include Cost-plus pricing- simplest method of pricing- involves adding a standard mark-up to the product break-even- what s the minimum price we can charge to match the cost of making and marketing a product (BE= (fixed costs)/(price-variable costs). Marginal cost- setting prices below full cost.Often used by service companies like hotels and airlines to make a contribution to direct costs. More complicated for services- variable costs move faster with an increase in demand. Advantages simple ensure you stay in business by setting minimum floor on pricing and helps to set objectives in terms of the minimum number of units that need to be sold Disadvantages In reality many business use cost-based approaches but they can have huge disadvantages illogical raised prices when sales pin tumbler sales estimates are made before a price is set ignores elasticity of demand ignores competitors pricing no incentive to reduce costs ignore the impact of consumer perception and psychology estimates overheads against individualproducts in an arbitrary wayCompetitor-based pricing- toilet take three forms1) Firms foll ow the prices set by leading competitors Benchmark then set either above, below or the same as competitor Popular in financial services Can be risky, especially if cost position is not as good as a competitor Could start price war2) Going Rate- all competitors receive the same because it is the going rate Undifferentiated commodities like coffee beans Challenge for marketer is to find creative ways of differentiating to charge higher price e.g. fair trade coffee beans, premium quality coffee beans 3) Competitive bidding process- contract goes out to tender sealed bids or competitive auction bridge usually lowest price accepted increasing price pressures, European competition legislation and growing use of technology has increased the use of competitive bidding Very common in government and public sector marketsMarket-led pricing- favourable as it takes into account value rather than price. Main methods 1) Trade-off analysis- also known as conjoint analysis, determines the trade-o ff between price and other features different combinations of variables such as brand, packaging, product features and price are tested can measure the impact on preferences of increasing price and determine the price level customers are willing to pay 2) Experimentation- places products on sale in various locations at different prices3) Economic Value to the Customer (EVC) reducing costs and increasing revenue are primary concerns of companies Therefore in industrial markets, EVC is calculated- can charge more for a product if it will help your customer increase their revenue more than the competition e.g. new technology.Market led pricing is favourable as it takes into account the psychology ofprices and not simply economics the price is used to say something about the product, and other factors such as stage in the product life cycle. Price often indicates quality especially in services. However, organisational considerations such as costs and the nature and structure of compe tition must also be considered.6) Outline how you would construct a SWOT analysis. (50%) Explain the purpose of a SWOT analysis in the marketing planning process. (50)Answers should explain how the marketing environment is analysed- Macro environmental analysis conducing a PESTEL analysis, Micro-environment- examining Five Forces and other factors such as consumer behaviour. These result in identifying opportunities and threats. An internal analysis using e.g. value chain, identifies an organisations strengths and weaknesses. The purpose of conducting a SWOT is to identify strategic choices available to a company. Its the internal communication of external information about appear issues, situations and potential threats that potentially influence an organisations decision making (Albright 2004).SWOT is essential for firms growing in size and complexity and is an important component of a companys approach to developing a market orientation. Market orientated companies are more prof itable. SWOT is essential in markets where the pace of change and uncertainty is increasingly high- companies need to take a proactive direction. It identifies fads, trends, and megatrends. Scanning customer trends helps you create, communicate and deliver value and beat the competition.SWOT/TOWS is the basis for making strategic decisions about growth, what products, what markets, and whether to convert weaknesses or capitalise on strengths etc. Decisions are then made about STP and how the marketing mix will be managed in order to achieve marketing objectives. SWOT is the result of the strategic analysis which is followed by strategic choice, strategic implementation, and strategic control.

The Role And Importance Of Palliative Care Nursing Essay

The Role And Importance Of Palliative C atomic number 18 Nursing EssayWhen the patient has serious infirmity like basiscer and came to the hospital and complaining from suffer, anorexia and fatigue at this time what prat he is suppose to do? The answer of this question is in the comment of palliative contend.What is palliative get by?Palliative c be according to (World Health Organization WHO, 2010) it is a medical profession stand up to helps the patients and families to come everyplace the pain and other problems like physical, psychosocial and spiritual with manner-threatening illness. This stooge be d iodine by the prevention and relief of suffering and early assessment and interference of pain.Palliative care according to (Get palliativecare.org, 2010) is provided by a team of professionals working together with your primary doctor. It is appropriate at any point in a serious illness and can be provided at the same time as treatment that is meant to cure. Moreover, pa tient in the end of life can baptistery and experience a host of distressing symptoms such as pain, dyspnea, and delirium are reported to be among the most feared and burdensome. Also, pain can be influenced by many factors, including the patients prior experience with pain, meaning given to pain, emotional stresses, family, and culture influences (Mcphee papadakis, 2009).(Mcphee papadakis ,2009,p.70) stated that the common problem for patients at the end of life up to 75% of patients dying of cancer is the pain and it is what people say they fear most about dying. Therefore, nurses must be aware about the barriers to good care ,which including the pretermit of knowledge about the proper selection and dosing of analgesic medication ,limited training and clinical experience with pain management, addiction which can occurs if the patient and caregivers misused the medicines (Mcphee papadakis, 2009).In addition, there are 20 reasons can make the palliative care difficult to the nurs es (Becker, 2010). I am going to mention some reasons shortage of staff.Shortage of nursing staff is wizard of the reasons which can make the palliative care difficult. In my experience in the hospital where I was working the staff nurses are in limited numbers , especially in the word the staff nurse can handle 9-12 patients some of these patients are having cancers and some time one staff nurse for 6 rooms each room has 5-7 patients. Cancers patients cannot bear the pain and the staff nurse wants to do other work like inserting intravenous fluid for diabetic patient with hypoglycemia, so how the nurse can concentrate in doing that?Here the staff has to prioritize her work, some staff nurses finding trouble to do that. Therefore the hospitals administration has to find and create a policy change in response to the nursing shortage as supported by Twigg , Duffield , Thompson Rapley (2010). In addition to that, as Abrahm(2010) stated that due to shortage of staff palliative care in oncologists, intensivists, advanced cardiac, pulmonary, renal, and hepatic diseases needs to be remedyd. need of knowledge of some medications and symptoms control.There were 146 surveys distributed to care providers from multiple settings. Out 135 0f 146 reported that there are several problems can make the palliative care difficult like poor pain and symptoms control, lack of education for care providers as stated by Sellick , Charles , Dagsvik , Kelley (1996)The availability of clear polices in get laiding with expiration issues.In my experience only in some hospitals we can find clear polices in dealing with death issues especially brain death , this intimacy can involve many elements like patient himself if he/she recommended before death if his/her brain died the caregiver can remove the supporting equipments, family according to the religion. So the staff nurse must be a wear about many religions. In understanding of the reasons and finding solutions to make the diffi culties easier to the nurses can make similarly much improvement in feeling of life.Quality of life can be affected by the level of education in heart loser patients. Patients with high education level often can improve more than low education level which usually reported to care givers in defective physical and functional condition as supported by Barbareschi, Sanderman, Leegte, van Veldhuisen Jaarsma (2011).In addition, there are two factors are related to whole step of life in heart failure patients, demographic and clinical. Also physical excises one of the main elements of disease management program. (Jaarsma, Johansson, Agren , Strmberg ,2010)I want to stress in one point from my experience I did not see patient with heart failure has been cured totally from the disease, so I think the palliative care can play role to help this patient to enhance his forest of life.For example, one of the patients I was taking care of him he told me I am futile nowSo for this type of patients I have to help him to move this idea from his mind, and let him to understand that the life did not end yet and we are finding developments in medical field, and give him task and encourage him to do it, after of compilation I have to enhance the feeling which he can feel it and let him to understand that he is worthfull and useful.Since I chose the heart failure I want to mention how the staff nurse can manage the pain in this case, which includePharmacologic treatment like angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, -blockers, diuretics, and possibly aldosterone antagonists and angiotensin receptor blockers (Lewis, Heitkemper, Dirksen, OBrien Bucher, 2007).Diet and body weight the recommended diet for these patients is low sodium diet to reduce body edema recording upon admission body weight can detect the body weight if increased or no (Lewis et al., 2007). behavioral and lifestyle management exercise/physical activity as stated by Benetti, Araujo, Santos (2010) exercis es can improve the quality of life for heart failure.Therefore, the nurses must encourage home and community-based care by taking the responsibility and contribute in education of patient and involve him to implement the therapeutic procedure to improve the quality of life. Teaching the patients and family how the progression of the disease is influenced by compliance with the treatment plan (Johnson, 2008, p.428).One of the most important points in improving quality of life as human being in my point of view is being opened to others .By this way the person can share others experience which can teach him/her something can change or improve the quality of life. In addition to that some patients need spiritual support which can make the life of some patients tally in smooth way as supported by Hegarty , Abernethy , Olver Currow (2011). Also, the quality of life can enhanced by the disable patients rehabilitation. As will as, change integrity patients with disabilities in right an d balance way can improve the quality life as supported by (Fadyl, McPherson Kayes, 2011).So how the caregivers can measure the quality of life?The relationship among patients and families with caregivers can detect the quality of life as Hasson-Ohayon, Roe, Kravetz, Levy-Frank Meir (2011) stated in their article. And, in my opinion quality of life is not wakeful to measure it because different criteria. The quality of life can make the measurement is so complicated, but generally speaking the improvement of individual health can indicate in quality of life.ConclusionThe palliative care profession is can plays important role in professional healths fields by service the patients and families to understand the serious illness and how to manage and improve the quality of life .By educating the nursing staff and they must be in university level in twain arts and sciences (McEwen willss, 2007). As deeply supported by Henderson theory which stressing on the important of education f or the nurses. In addition to that the caregiver should try their best to improve the quality of life which can lead to improve the palliative care, by understanding each individual is unique in many aspects and trying to deal differently accordingly. The hospitals managers should understand the teamworks conflict and create polices to solve the shortage of nursing staff can enhance the palliative care to reach to optimal quality of patients life.

Teachers Perceptions of Instructional Supervision

teachers Perceptions of Instructional SupervisionCHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTIONThis chapter take a shits a preamble to the whole speculate. It deals with the problem and the way it is antennaed. It encloses a truncated formulation of background of the study, objective of the study, delimitation and limitation of the study. It overly introduces definition of some key terms and the over alwaysy(prenominal) organization of the study.1.1 Background of the StudyTeacher gentility play an important role in promoting the learning and nonrecreational person person growth of teachers. Supervision is whizz of the functions of education that offers opportunities for prepares to be effective and for increasing the passe-partout organic evolution of teachers as a means of effectively managing the instruct-learning touch on (Kutsyuruba, 2003 Arong Ogbadu, 2010). Supervision has existed in all countries for many decades and occupies a pivotal position in the worry of education, which corn erstone be understood as an expert technical service most importantly concerned with scientific study and onward motion of the conditions that surrounds learning and teachchild growth (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Vashist (2004), watch is leadership and development of leadership within groups, which cooperatively assess educational product in light of accepted educational objectives, studying the teaching-learning situation to determine the antecedents of satisfactory and unsatisfactory pupil growth and achievement, and improving the teaching learning process.The concept of instructional inadvertence differs from school control in the smell that the former straines on guidance, support, and regular assessment provided to teachers for their professional development and improvement in the teaching-learning process, whereas the latter gives emphasis on controlling and evaluating the improvement of schools based on utter standards set by external agents outside the school s ystem (Wilcox Gray, 1996 Tyagi, 2010 Arong Ogbadu, 2010). Instructional supervision is mainly concerned with improving schools by helping teachers to reflect their practices, to learn more about what they do and why, and to develop professionally (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Various authors stated that instructional supervision has clear connection with professional development (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007 Zepeda, 2007). Kutsyuruba (2003) delimit professional development as followsA major component of ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their mightiness to adapt instruction to meet students take, and their class path management skills and with establishing a professional culture that relies on shared beliefs about the importance of teaching and learning and that emphasizes teacher collegiateity. (p. 11)In Ethiopia, the supervisory services began to be carried out since 1941, with constant shift of its names Inspection and Superv ision. Currently, supervision is widely nice in all schools at all levels (Haileselassie, 1997). In the case of Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa City judicature Education Bureau (AACAEB) has restructured its sub city level supervisory positions from general supervisory approach to subject-area instructional supervisory approach, since the offset of 2004 (Alemayehu, 2008).1.2 caper StatementA question conducted by Alemayehu (2008) in auxiliary schools of Addis Ababa shows that the subject-area instructional supervision practiced in Addis Ababa City Administration (AACA) has exposed to multiple problems much(prenominal) as, lack of adequate support to new-madely deployed ( beginner) teachers, less amount of classroom visits and peer learn by instructional supervisors, focus of supervisors on administrative matters than on academic issues (supporting and helping teachers), and less mutual professional trust in the midst of supervisors and teachers. All these and opposite problems g reen goddess enable teachers to founder a controvert perception towards instructional supervision.According to Oliva (1976), the way teachers perceive supervision in schools and classrooms is an important factor that determines the outcomes of supervision process. In addition, previous inquiry and publications revealed that because of its evaluative approaches less go through teachers have more negative perceptions on the practice of supervision than more experienced teachers. They consider supervisors as fault finders they panic that supervisors will report their weaknesses to the school administrator, and consider supervision as nothing value to offer to them (Blumberg, 1980 Olive, 1976 Zepeda Ponticell, 1998). However, literature on perception of teachers toward supervisory practices is very particular(a) in Africa in general and in Ethiopia in particular.Therefore, this study was designed to examine beginning teachers perceptions of the real and ensample supervisory prac tices and their perceptions on its relationship with professional development in private and politics secondary schools of Addis Ababa. This study addressed the following basic research questionsWhat are the perceptions and preferences of government and private beginning secondary school teachers regarding the tangible and ideal supervisory practices?Is there any difference in perception betwixt beginner and experienced secondary school teachers regarding the actual and ideal supervisory practices?What is the perceived relationship between the supervisory practices and teachers professional development?1.3 Objective of the StudyThe overall objective of this study was to examine the brisk perception of beginning teachers toward instructional supervision and its perceived relationship to professional development in government and private secondary schools of Addis Ababa. Specifically, the study call forks to explore beginning teachers perception of what the ideal supervision shou ld be and how it has been actually implemented in the schools, and their perceived connection to professional development. In addition, it was aimed to explore what differences existed in the perception of instructional supervision between private and government school teachers and between experienced and less experienced (beginner) teachers.1.4 Significance of the StudyTeachers perception of instructional supervision can positively or negatively affect the quality of education. Teachers differ in their preferences and choices of supervisory approaches (Beach Reinhartz, 2000). Though there are some teachers who would like to work only when without additional support, there are other teachers who would appreciate comments about their teaching from their colleagues, supervisors, or school administrators (Augustyn, 2001). In this study, an overview of the theoretical frameworks of supervisory approaches (ideal interpretation) and their practical applications (actual interpretation) w ere presented. The researcher has a belief that identifying the prevailing perceptions of teachers by undertaking this survey and coming up with sound recommendations can have its own role to play in improving the practical supervisory processes and quality of education at large. To this end, this study will bring about the following benefitsThe research findings provided an insight into teachers perception of supervisory practices and therefore determined whether teachers were satisfied with such practices and their influence on professional development.The study will enable those involved in supervisory practices to identify the underlying negative perceptions of instructional supervision and seek for application of appropriate supervisory approaches based on teachers preferences and choices.Since the characteristic of education is its dynamism and capacity to respond to changing needs and challenges, the researcher feels that the study will contribute an additional author of i nformation in evaluating the achievement gained as a result of practicing instructional supervision.Finally, the researcher also believes that the study will initiate other researchers to undertake detailed research on the effectiveness of instructional supervision at regional and national levels. In addition, the results of this study may be used to add to the international practices of instructional supervision.1.5 Delimitation of the studySince Addis Ababa City Administration (AACA) is wide having a total of 112 government and private secondary schools, it will be unrealistic and impractical to attempt to study teachers perception of instructional supervision within a given season limit. Therefore, the study is delimited to 20 private and government secondary schools (10 from each) and 200 teachers (100 beginning and 100 experienced). In addition, public secondary schools in Addis Ababa are not included in this study due to the fact that the government has enacted a law to be in cluded under government control and administration. However, by this faeces the schools are not totally shifted to government control. They are partially funded by government and partially by the public, but their name and administration are not yet clear.1.6 Limitation of the StudyThe study had limitations in that it includes only government and private secondary schools in Addis Ababa. Primary schools are not included in this study due to time and budget constraints. On the other hand, generalizability of this study was limited by the fact that the research was conducted in secondary schools in one city of Ethiopia. In addition, the study had limitations of all survey face research such as clarity of wording and respondent understanding of some terminologies. Problem of getting recently published books was equally challenging. Therefore, because of these limitations, the study by no means claims to be conclusive. It would or else dispense as a spring to study teachers percepti ons in a more detailed and comprehensive way.1.7 Definition of Key TermsFor the subprogram of this study, the following terms were definedInstructional supervision is a process aimed at providing guidance, support, and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and improvement in the teaching-learning process, which relay on the system that is built on trust and collegial culture (Beach Reinhartz, 2000).Beginning teacher refers to a teacher currently in the first or second year of teaching.Experienced teacher refers to a teacher who has three or more years of teaching experience.Secondary school is a school usually includes grades 9 through 12.Government secondary school is a school established and administered by government of Ethiopia.Private secondary school is a school established and administered by private foreign or local owners.Ideal supervisory approaches are supervisory approaches stated in various literatures which should be implemented in scho ols.Real supervisory activities are those supervisory approaches stated in various literatures which are actually implemented in schools.Professional development is a major component of ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their ability to adapt instruction to meet students needs, and their classroom management skills, leading to the professional growth of the teacher (Wanzare Da rib, 2000).Sub-city in Ethiopian case, it refers to the government administrative hierarchy next to city administration. It is locally called Kifle Ketema.1.8 Organization of the StudyThis study comprises five chapters. The first chapter deals with the problem and the way it is approached. It encloses a brief formulation of background of the study, objective of the study, delimitation and limitation of the study, and definition of some key terms. The second chapter reviews some of the current literature pertaining to the area of instructional supervision, diffe rent approaches to supervisory process, and their connection with professional development. The third chapter details the research methodology, description of the study area, data sources, samples and sampling techniques, data gathering instruments, validity and reliableness of instruments, procedure of data collection, and analysis of the data. Analysis and interpretation of the research findings are presented in the fourth chapter. Lastly, a summary of the study, conclusions, and recommendations are presented in chapter five.CHAPTER TWO hypothetical FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTIn this chapter a review of related literature on instructional supervision and its relationship with professional development is provided. The chapter is divided in to four parts as to enable the reader to follow a logical sequence that includes write up of school supervision, overview of supervision approaches, teachers perception of supervisory processes, and the relationship between supervision and professional development.2.1 History of School SupervisionIn many developed countries, such as United body politic (UK) and United States, much more attention has been given to command than school supervision (Lee, Dig Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had originated from France under Napoleons governance at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801 (Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms inspector and control are still being used in various developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007).Traditionally, inspection and supervision were us ed as important tools to ensure efficiency and accountability in the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and supervision are used by different countries in different ways. As outlined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the assessment and evaluation of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and improvement in their teaching- learning process. Nevertheless, since the demand of teachers for guidance and support rendered from supervisors has increased from time to time, some countries changed the speech and preferring the term supervisor over that of inspector. According to Grawue (2007), some countries have recently developed more specific terminologies Malawi, uses education methods advisor, and Uganda teacher development advisor.The concepts of supervision and inspection have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated thatApart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name changes made we do not notice any significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12)From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management. According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center (Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, regulate (Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at s chool level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers.According to Haileselassie (1997), the functional and true sense of educational supervision depends on the supervisory operation made at the grassroots level, i.e. School level. In this regard, subject-area instructional supervision has practiced in all schools of Addis Ababa since the beginning of 2004. The major responsibilities of subject-area instructional supervisors in Addis Ababa include (1) examining and reporting the programs, organization and management of the teaching-learning activities (2) developing and presenting alternative methods used to improve instructional programs (3) guiding and supervise schools and teachers (4) preparing and organizing professional trainings, workshops, seminars, etc. (5) monitoring and supporting the mentoring (induction) programs for beginner teachers and (6) providing direct assistance and perform instructional and managerial activities in sch ools with teachers and principals by organizing and implementing clinical, collegial, peer coaching and cognitive coaching techniques of instructional supervision, etc (Alemayehu, 2008).2.2 Overview of Supervisory ApproachesAccording to Blas and Blas (1998), although many supervisory approaches are cooperative in nature, for long time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) describe supervision as a ritual they supervisors and teachers participate according to well established scripts without much consequence (p. 203). This author continued that today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education (p. 204). He explained that though functioned for a considerable span of time, this type of supervision caused negative stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled. Sup porting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, because of this, teachers are unaccustomed to the sort out of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial assistance are coming in to use (p.1).It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because supervisory authority and control are indwelling for professional development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000) explained this as much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded (p. 37). Having said this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors set forth the former as a formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994 Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning (p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and implement a range of profe ssional growth opportunities designed to meet teachers professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is a summative process that focus on assessing the competence of teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individuals professional competence at specific time (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should go hand in hand (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers professional growth, evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003 Wareing, 1990).The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, self-reflection, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso Firth, 1990 Clarke, 1995 Poole, 1994 Reninan, 2002 Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007 Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers it is also important to provide choices to the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Each component of supervisory approaches are discussed as follows.Clinical SupervisionAccording to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a caseful- to- face contract with teachers with the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and systematic supervisory process which involves face-to-face interaction between teachers and supervisors designed to improve the teachers classroom instructions (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according to Snow-Gerono (2008) is to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers abilities to be self-supervising (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a specific cycle or pattern of working with teachers (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a partnership in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of supervisor functions more as an individual with experience and insight than as an expert who determines what is right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure of clinical supervision that includes pre-observation conference, class room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with inexperienced beginning teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and experienced teachers who are in need of improving their instructional performance.Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches collaborate to research their practices and improve their teaching and learni ng (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers further described that the focus of clinical supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional improvement of the teacher that guarantees quality of teaching and students performance (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007).Collaborative SupervisionCollaboration and collegially are very important in todays fresh schools. According to Burke and Fessler (1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching environment with the appropriate support from more experienced colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an ethical and professional tariff of providing the required type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003). In this regard, a teacher who needs collegial and collaborative support should realize that needs do not exist for professional growth, that feedback from colleag ues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward improvement (Burke Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision which are especially postulate for beginner or tiro teachers are peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring (Showers Joyce, 1996 Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007 Sullivan Glanz, 2003 Kutsyuruba, 2003).Peer coachingPeer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is defined as teachers helping teachers reflect on and improve teaching practice and/or implement particular teaching skills needed to implement knowledge gained through faculty or curriculum development (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice and feedback following lag development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, but supportive atmosphere for cost-efficient communication, and involve them in decision making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to develop communities within which teachers collaborate to honor a very simple value- when we learn together, we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively serve our students (p. 251). Thus, peer coaching provides possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative relationships, participatory decision making, and immediate feedback (Bowman McCormick, 2000 Sullivan Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003).Cognitive coachingAccording to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to a nonjudgmental process built around a planning conference, observation, and a reflecting conference (p. 2). Co gnitive coaching differs from peer coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described, cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however, when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers further identified three components of cognitive coaching planning, lesson observation, and reflection.Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely (1) developing and maintaining trusting relationship (2) fostering growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior and (3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and encouraged to reach at a higher level of autonomy- the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze (Garmston, Linder Whitaker, 1993).MentoringMentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is a process that facilitates instructional improvement wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff member (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers figure out the school and its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real class rooms (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated the works of mentors asThe mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally studying and deliberating on ways instruction in the class room may be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific area with other educators. Mentors are not judges or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All inte ractions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213)Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and professional development which serve to augment the succession planning and professional development of teachers (Reiman Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the emphasis of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and learn ways to overcome them. As a result, mentoring is the kind of relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved.Self-ReflectionAs the context of education is ever changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in incarnate reflection practices such as peer coac hing, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self-assessment reflective practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- directed development is a process by which a teacher systematically plans for his or her own professional growth in teaching. Glatthorn further described that self-directed approaches are mostly ideal for teachers who prefer to work alone or who, because of scheduling or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) considered this option to be efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others. Thus, the writers indicated that in self-directed supervision teachers work alone by assuming responsibility for their own professional development (p. 276).Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is an option provided for teachers that enable them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those go als, and undertake the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes (p. 200). In addition, this approach is particularly suited to competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007).PortfoliosAs teachers want to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with teacher compiled collection of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials, and student work that represents the teachers professional growth and abilities (Riggs Sandlin, 2000).A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records, photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective practices of teachers, but also it is a central road for teachers professional growth through self-reflection, analysis, and sharing with colleagues through sermon and writing (p. 215). The writers further described that portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships.Professional Growth PlansProfessional growth plans are defined as individual goal- stage setting activities, long term projects teachers develop and carry out relating to the teaching (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional and professional goals by setting intended outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth plan s as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read, and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans could produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and increased focus and commitment to learning (p. 422).Summative EvaluationThere is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda, 2007). Teacher evaluation involves two distinct components formative evaluation and summative evaluation (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers professi

Negative Priming Experiment

Negative Priming ExperimentNegative Priming The make of repressive mechanisms on the probe of a pair of tests in a Stroop genius sign identification task.AbstractThe investigation was based on the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), who investigated the phenomenon of nix priming in relation to the Stroop task. In the original test by Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), it was discovered that if in a trial, the ink rubric was the same as the invent on the previous trial subjects were long-playing to respond. This order has been termed forbid priming. The identify of this taste was to partly replicate the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), and to further investigate the phenomena of ostracise priming. The experimenter hypothesised that in an ink colour identification task, when the tail end in the probe trial matched the distractor in the tiptop, hence reaction times would be importantly slower in comparison to designates where the bang and probe wer e unrelated. To test the hypothesis, the re counter created four conditions congruent, neutral, unheeded repetition and tended to(p) repetition. The condition of interest was neglected repetition. Participants reaction times were recorded for the primes and probes of severally condition. The effect of condition was shown to be significant using a two way repeated measures analysis of variance F(3,57) = 13.09 p = 0.001. The significance of the results rigorouss the hypothesis was accepted, and it was concluded that negative priming is prominent in conditions where the bulls eye in the prime becomes the distractor in the probe, supporting the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966).IntroductionAttention is a vital and complex function of cognition. One of the earliest definitions of caution came from James (1890), who be it as the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid discrepancy, of i out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thou ghtIt implies backdown from some things in order to deal effectively with other. This early definition from James (1890) highlighted the issue of the discriminating nature of attention. This throw of attention is essential for organisms to be able to be successful in a search for a target to select and process only the information they need. It is therefore vital that during this search there are certain(a) mechanisms that suppress distracting information and prevent the return of attention to previously attended objects or events. The mechanism responsible for this important feature is ban- the suppression of unwanted or distracting information to ensure movement of attention to novel locations.The role of inhibition has been theorised done a variety of concepts. One much(prenominal) concept is Inhibition of Return (IOR). IOR was proposed as an inhibitory mechanism, which reduces the prominence of the previously inspected item in a scene. IOR was first notice by Posner and Cohen (1984) in their simpleton cuing experiment and refers to the relative suppression of stimuli (object and events) that had recently been the focus of attention. This inhibition of return effect is thought to make visual search more efficient as it ensures that previously examined objects are not searched again, thus facilitating the search for the target (Wright Richard, 1996).Further evidence of inhibitory mechanisms in attention comes from the visual marking mechanism proposed by Watson and Humphreys (1997) as a goal-directed process that enhances visual search through the inhibition of old objects. When new objects are added to a visual scene, they take anteriority during search, because old objects are marked for non search. Also, the discovery of the attentional blink provides some clear evidence that in tasks using Rapid Serial Visual debut (RSVP), a method of displaying information very truncatedly in sequential order, perception of a target presented 200-500ms afte r the first target is impaired (Raymond, 1992). This attentional blink occurs because of interference ca utilise by the presentation of stimuli after the target but before the target-identification process is complete, causing the temporary suppression of inhibitory mechanisms. In other words, inhibition of distracting stimuli does not occur, causing a failure in identification.Mechanisms such(prenominal) as IOR and visual marking are evidence for inhibitory mechanisms in selective attention, and the attentional blink demonst enumerates besides how important these mechanisms are. This process of inhibition however, is not without consequences. It has been discovered that after a stimulus has been ignored, processing of that ignored stimulus concisely afterwards is impaired. This effect has been termed negative priming (Tipper, 1985). In recent years, numerous studies put one over looked at negative priming as evidence of an inhibitory broker within selective attention.An importa nt study which was vital in the discovery of negative priming is the Stroop task (Stroop, 1935). The standard Stroop colour-word test involved actors being needful to name the ink colour of a printed word. When the word was incongruent with the colour ink- such as the word red written in commonality ink- then interference occurred, resulting in slower response times and more errors in comparison to control conditions. In congruent conditions, where the colour written matched the colour of ink it was written in, reaction times were faster. The interference observed in this study can be attributed to autoloading(prenominal)ity as reading is an automatic process. According to Shiffrin and Schneiders (1977) model of automaticity, automatic processing makes no demands on attentional resources, has no capacity limitations, and is unavoidable. Automatic processing thus provides a liable explanation of why the Stroop effect occurs, as when seeing a word we unavoidably read it, causing a delay in the process of assignment the ink colour of the word.Whilst investigating the effect of stimulus sequencing on Stroop interference, Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), came across what is now known as negative priming. What they found was that there was a greater delay and an increased error rate when an item appeared in the colour ink which was required to be ignored in the previous stimulus. Similar findings come from Tipper (1985), who presented participants with overlapping line drawings, in any red or green. The participants were required to identify only the red items in each set of stimuli. When the ignored drawing (green) became the required response (red) in the next set of trials, response times slowed. This suggests it is harder to identify and selectively attend to what was previously rejected.A key question in regards to selective attention and negative priming is at which point of sensory processing can incoming signals first be selected or rejected by atte ntion- does this happen early in the process or late? Early selection models, such as Broadbents (1958) filter theory, argue that as sensory processes are limited, they require attention to initially select the stimuli that are required for further processing and discarded irrelevant stimuli. Therefore, attentional selection should occur early implying a bottleneck in the headland protecting processing systems from being overloaded by irrelevant information.The late selection models (Deutsch Deutsch 1936) however, claim that all stimuli, both attended and unattended, can be polished mechanically in parallel- thus without a need for early selection. Therefore, selection should occur late, after the semantic analysis of the stimuli. Negative priming has generally been construe as evidence for late selection as the phenomenon shows that distracting/ irrelevant stimuli are in fact processed at the same time as the attended stimuli, hence the interference that occurs.Negative Priming is clearly a well studied phenomenon, and there have been numerous variations on the original experiment by Dalrymple Alford and Budayr (1966). The explanations behind the effect have generally focused on the effect being caused by increased interference due to the suppression of the word during naming of the ink colour- resulting in temporary unavailability of that response (MacLeod MacDonald, 2000). The majority of evidence supports the idea that if a probe in a pair of stimuli has the same target as the prime, then reaction times will be slowed for that probe suggesting that internal representations of the ignored object may become associated with inhibition during selection. Therefore this experiment hypothesises that, in concordance with the previous evidence, in an ink colour identification task, the probe in the ignored repetition condition will take significantly longer to identify than the prime, in comparison to other conditions.MethodDesignThe design was repeated measur es with 2 within factors condition with 4 levels (Congruent, unbiased, Ignored repeating and Attended Repetition) and labor union with 2 levels (prime and probe). The experiment was a part replication of the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), as an investigation into negative priming.The experiment consisted of 4 conditions. correspond 1 was Congruent, where the target and distractor matched in both prime and probe, for example blue in blue ink followed by red in red ink. check off 2 was Neutral, where the normal Stroop style format was used and the prime and probe bore no intentional resemblance to each other for example blue in red ink followed by yellow in green ink. Condition 3 was Ignored repetition. This condition was where negative priming was presumed to take place, as the distractor in the prime became the target in the probe, for example, blue in yellow ink followed by red in blue ink. The final condition, condition 4, was Attended repetition, where the targe t was repeated in the probe, for example blue in red ink followed by green in red ink.For each condition, there were 30 pairs of trials (120 pairs in total, 240 individual trials). Within each pair was a prime (1) and a probe (2) The trials were split into two identical blocks. To control for order effects, the conditions were randomised such that no condition/ pair was presented in succession. This resulted in 15 pairs of each condition per block. A total of 240 responses (reaction times, in milliseconds) were collected for each participant.ParticipantsThe sample selected was a group of 20 undergraduate students at the University of Lincoln, with a mean age of 21.35 years, and a standard aberrance of 6.51. This target population was relevant because it was the most tardily accessible group of people of similar age and status. Participants were selected by opportunity sampling. This method was used because it is a quick, practical and efficient way of generating data through using participants available and willing at the time of the experiment.MaterialsIn order to carry out the experiment certain materials were necessary. The researcher used a dingle Optiplex 745 computer with a monitor size 15inches, 150HP. Also used was a button box (Credus Corporations) and voice recorder (TTC Quality Electronics). The 6 colours used were randomly selected from a bag of various coloured cards. The chosen colours were then created from a standard Microsoft windows palette. These wereBlue (red 0, green 0, blue 225), Green (red 0, green 225, blue 0), Red (red 225, green 0, blue 0), Yellow (red 255, green 255, blue 0), Pink (red 225, green 0, blue 225), Black (red 0, green 0, blue 0). All colour words were presented in Aerial font, size 58, bold.In do-gooder to the colour words presented, there was also a welcome message (Arial font, size 48, bold, in Black ink), and a fixation cross (Arial font, size 58, bold, in Black ink).Further necessary materials included a checklist for Type I and Type II errors.ProcedureThe participants were approached and asked if they would like to take part in the experiment. If they agreed they were taken to a quiet area chosen for the experiment to take part in. past the researcher explained to the participant what they would need to do, and gave them a set of standardised instructions (appendix 1). The participants were then asked to read and sign the consent form (appendix 2) if they agreed to take part. by-line this, the participants were seated in front of the computer screen and shown how to hold the microphone. They were then told there would be an initial give run of the experiment, and asked to begin when they were ready. Following the practice run, the participant was once again asked if they were happy to stretch out with the experiment. If they agreed, they were instructed to begin when they were ready.During the experiment, two researchers were present at all times. The researchers each had a list of the order of trials and remunerate responses, as they were pseudo-randomised. One researcher marked type I errors on one sheet, and the other marked type II errors on another. Block one consisted of a series of 60 trials followed by a 30second break before the re of import(prenominal)ing 60 trials in that block. The experiment began with a welcome message which instructed the participant to press the left key on the button box when they were ready to start. After they had pressed this, a fixation cross was presented on the screen for 1500ms, followed by a blank which lasted 1000ms. Each trial was presented for 1500ms, trials were presented in pairs according to condition. Between each pair was a blank of 1000ms.After the first block of trials, the experiment closed, and one researcher started block two, which was identical to block one. Once again any and all errors were recorded. After the completion of this second final block, the experiment automatically closed. The participant was then thanked for their cooperation and precondition a debrief form to read (appendix 3) they were also encouraged to ask any questions, and assured that their results would remain private and anonymous. respectable ConsiderationsA number of ethical issues were identified in the experiment in line with British Psychology Society (BPS) guidelines. A consent form was given to participants which explained what the experiment was researching into, what they had to do during the testing and it also requested the participants age and gender. The form explained that any participant with aversion to flashing lights or rapidly presented stimuli should not continue on with the experiment, and asked participants to report if they had any back problems. Participants also had the right to withdraw themselves and their results from the experiment at any time, and this was subjectd in both the consent form (appendix 2) and debrief (appendix 3). After the participants had taken part in the experi ment, the experimenter explained what they were investigating and the implications to the research, and answered any questions asked. It was the experimenters responsibility to make sure that participants left in the same psychological state that they started the experiment with. Participants were informed that their identity would be kept anonymous and that their results would be treated in confidence and destroyed after the experiment. To ensure protection of participants, no physical or mental harm came to them while taking part in the experiment as the consent form included a brief health check to eliminate those individuals who may be at slight risk from participating in the experiment. The room was an empty, calm setting, in order to play down any stress to the participant, and to avoid any eye strain, a break was given, splitting the trials into two blocks. No deception took place in this experiment.An ethical cheers form was completed by researchers prior to the experiment (appendix 4).ResultsThe results were recorded and go badd for each condition in the experiment- 1 (Congruent), 2 (Neutral), 3 (Ignored Repetition) and 4 (Attended Repetition). Any errors, either cognitive (type I), or human/computer (type II), were excluded from the data. Both prime and probe trails were removed regardless of where the error occurred. Error analysis will be discussed later.A table to show a comparison of the mean and standard deviation of the remnant between reaction times of prime and probe per conditionConditionMeanStandard Deviation1 (Congruent)21.25098.630022 (Neutral)12.950111.551493 (Ignored Rep)-69.35066.522874 (Attended Rep)35.45094.73424A table to show a comparison of mean standard deviation for reaction times of prime and probe per conditionConditionMeanStandard Deviation1 (Congruent ) pristine1 (Congruent ) Probe744.3723.0156.4122.32 (Neutral) Prime2 (Neutral) Probe822.9809.9170.7129.03 (Ignored Rep) Prime3 (Ignored Rep) Probe 782.7852.0138.6132.74 ( Attended Rep) Prime4 (Attended Rep) Probe775.9740.5142.1140.4See appendix 5 for full SPSS data.The mean difference between prime and probe for condition 3 (Ignored Repetition) was -69.35, which was significantly greater than for any of the other conditions (21.25 for Congruent 12.95 for Neutral, and 35.45 for Attended Repetition). It also shows that the condition with the smallest difference in reaction time between prime and probe was condition 2 (Neutral).2 shows that for condition 3 (Ignored repetition) the mean reaction time for the prime (782.7) was smaller than the mean reaction time for the probe (852.0). This stands out when compared to all of the other conditions, where the mean reaction time for the prime was greater than for the probe. This suggests that for conditions 1 (Congruent), 2 (Neutral) and 4 (Attended Rep), the probe generated a quicker response than the prime, yet for condition 3 this effect was reversed and the probe generated a slower response.To further anal yse the data, a Two-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was carried out to analyse the reaction times and look at any effect between conditions. The results of the ANOVA shows that the main effect of Condition was significant F(3,57) = 13.09 p = 0.001. The following bar chart ( 3) presents a visual representation of this significance and shows the variation between conditionsThe second ANOVA was concerned with the difference in reaction times between prime and probe. The ANOVA showed that the main effect of Pair is not significant F(1,19) = 0.001 p = 0.996, suggesting that the pairing did not significantly affect reaction times. Although the effect was not found to be significant, the plot below ( 4) clearly shows that condition 3 (Ignored Repetition) was the only condition where response time was slower in the probe than in the primeThirdly, the interaction effect between Condition and Pair was analysed. This was found to be significant F(3,57) = 6.6 p = 0.001. As the interaction effect be tween Pair and Condition was significant, a post-hoc Bonferroni was carried out to find where the significances lay. The Bonferroni showed significant differences between the following conditions(1) Congruent and (2) Neutral (p= 0.001)(1) Congruent and (3) Ignored Repetition (p= 0.002)(2) Neutral and (4) Attended Repetition (p= 0.001)(3) Ignored Repetition and (4) Attended Repetition (p= 0.014)Error analysisErrors were recorded per type I and II for each condition. The table below ( 5) shows the number of errors of each type that occurred in each condition.A table of sums of errors per condition and error typeConditionError Type IError Type II1 (Congruent)11262 (Neutral)21333 (Ignored Rep)35354 (Attended Rep)2624A table to show the mean rank of errors per conditionConditionMean Rank1 (Congruent)2.152 (Neutral)2.703 (Ignored Rep)2.934 (Attended Rep)2.23The condition with the lowest number of errors was condition 1 (Congruent), with a mean of 2.15. The condition with the highest numbe r of errors condition 3 (Ignored Repetition), with a mean of 2.93.A Friedmans test was used to analyse the errors and look for any significances in their distribution. Application of Friedmans test showed that there were no significances in the distribution of errors over the four conditions X2=5.71 df = 3 p = 0.127.DiscussionThe results obtained show that the mean difference between prime and probe for condition 3 (Ignored repetition) was -69.35, which was notably greater than for any of the other conditions (21.25, 12.95 and 35.45). This suggests that something several(predicate) is happening in this condition, as the difference is not only a lot greater but also in the opposite direction. The plot ( 4) shows a visual representation of this effect. From this it is possible to infer that in the Ignored repetition condition, negative priming did occur as the probe took longer to respond to than the prime in comparison with all other conditions. After carrying out a two way repeated measures ANOVA, it becomes clear that this is in fact the case. The results of the ANOVA showed that the main effect of Condition was significant F(3,57) = 13.09 p = 0.001, and that the interaction effect between Condition and Pair was also significant F(3,57) = 6.6 p = 0.001. The ANOVA concerning the difference in reaction times between prime and probe showed that the main effect of Pair was not significant F(1,19) = 0.001 p = 0.996.Analysis of errors found them not to be significant however the mean ranks showed that there were more errors in the ignored repetition condition (Mean rank 2.93). This is consistent with previous research that in the ignored repetition condition, more interference occurs causing slower response times and more mistakes to be made.These findings mean that the hypothesis can be accepted in an ink colour identification task, when the target in the probe trial matches the distractor in the prime, then reaction times will be significantly slower in comparis on to conditions where the prime and probe are unrelated. Thus the experiment supports and confirms the previous research such as that of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966).The negative priming effect observed in this experiment can be explained as an inhibitory mechanism of attention. The differences in reaction times between conditions infer that for condition 3 (Ignored Repetition), at the point of the probe something different happened in than in the other conditions. In line with previous research, we can assume that due to the suppression of the word in the prime trial, when that colour word then becomes the ink colour in the probe trial, then there is a problem with retrieving that response as it had just been suppressed.One limitation of this experiment was the methodology. The design involved a set of two blocks in a Super Lab program, each containing 15 pairs of each condition, in a randomised order. Between each pair of trials was a blank screen presented for 1000msc. Thi s quick succession of pairs means it may not have been obvious for the participants that the stimuli were in fact presented in pairs. This therefore may be able to explain why the probe condition 1 (Congruent) was fastest when it was anticipate that condition 4 (Attended Repetition) would be. To overcome this limitation, future experiments could use separate blocks for each condition- thus making it more obvious that the trials were in certain pairs.In addition to the above adjustment, it would also be interesting to consider individual differences in a future extension of this experiment. There has been numerous past studies that suggest for certain individuals, the effect of negative priming is actually less robust. An example of this is Schizophrenics, who seem less able at inhibition- hence are less susceptible to negative priming (Beech et al 1989). A future investigation could build on the evidence of individual differences playing an important role in the effect of negative priming, and possibly look into more general differences such as cultural background or occupation. For example, it would be interesting to look for any differences in the effect of negative priming between people in creative careers- such as artists, compared with those in writing careers such as journalists. Would someone who is used to tone at words be more prone to negative priming than someone who would be more interested in the colour and form of the word?To summarise, this experiment has shown clear negative priming, consistent with the majority of existing studies, thus supporting the notion of inhibitory processes in attention.ReferencesBeech, A., Powell, T., McWilliam, J., Claridge, G. (1989). Evidence of reduced cognitive inhibition in schizophrenia. British diary of Clinical Psychology, 28, 109-116.Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. young York Pergamon.Deutsch, J. A., Deutsch, D. (1963). Attention some theoretical considerations. Psychological Re view, 70, 80-90.Dalrymple-Alford, E.C., Budayr, B. (1966). 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